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LATHES – A BEGINNER’S BUYING GUIDE
What makes the perfect workshop? I think we can all agree on a warm,
dry space with a
well-lit bench of stout construction, a strong vice, a good selection of
quality hand tools and a bench drill. However, beyond that what you really need
- is a lathe. The only machine tool able to produce a replica of itself
the lathe can not only turn, bore, grind, drill and generate screw threads but
even, with a few simple modifications, be converted into a shaping machine to
produce flat surfaces. It can be adapted to make the most precise of components
or, with suitable cunning, set up to machine a crankcase or rebore a cylinder.
With a lathe in your workshop you will not only be able to save a great deal of
money but also complete jobs to a much higher standard than without one. For
example, would you like exactly 1.5 turns of threads protruding neatly from
every nut on your classic motorcycle or car rebuild? Do you need to loose 2 lbs
from your racer by thinning bolt heads and drilling into their stems? Turn
distance pieces to locate part X into part Y without Y bending all over the
place when the nuts are tightened? Build a model of a radial, rotary Bentley
aero engine? With a lathe those jobs – and a hundred others - will be
simplicity itself (OK, the Bentley might not be so easy …..). If your interest
is watch, clock or instrument making look at this section.
Until the1980s small lathes were always difficult to find, with even worn
examples commanding high prices. Today the situation is, happily, much easier,
and prices - in relation to earnings - far lower.
As ever, the main considerations are: will it do the job - to buy new or
used - and how much to pay? As in other fields, the market is now awash
with cheaply built machines from China – that country having largely displaced
the former leaders, Korea and Taiwan, in the manufacture of these products.
Machine tools from all these countries offer a lot of “metal for the money”,
however, although they often look the part, a cursory examination will reveal
that they sometimes lack several vital elements amongst which the most
important are: quality of materials; care in assembly and set up; tumble
reverse; backgear and a selection of slow spindle speeds. Proper British
and American small lathes (but not most modern "European" or Far
Eastern examples) normally include all or most of these essential features.
However, they are expensive to provide and, by including them, the
makers reduce their competitive edge on price. However – and this cannot be
overstated – these features do make an enormous difference to the usability and
functionality of any lathe. The result is that a second-hand but
properly-specified British, American or European machine can be worth as much
as, and sometimes more, than a new Far-Eastern example. The well-known maxim:
"Regrets about the low-quality last far, far longer than the celebrations
over the low price" applies especially well to machine tools. An
expensive, well-made lathe will but be much more pleasant to use, have
increased versatility and eventually prove much easier to sell – whilst also
recouping a greater percentage of its purchase price. Surprisingly, spares and
accessories for the older English machines are often easier to find as well:
many are still supported by their makers, there are third-party companies
specialising in their manufacture and lots of bits on eBay. Incidentally, in
years gone by, makers and distributors would prepare special
"show-finish" machines to attract the more gullible buyer’s attention
in showrooms, trade fairs, exhibitions and model-engineering shows.
Fortunately, the present incumbents of the trade appear not to appreciate this
little trick, or perhaps they lack the energy to do it; but just in case they
wise-up, beware.
Clicking on any self-help web site run by owners who have a cheaper, imported
machine inevitably throws up a set of “rebuild instructions”, together with
hints and tips for overcoming their other (often extensive) problems. When
these sites start with articles explaining: "How to make a set of useful
accessories" (as they do with properly-made lathes) - and makes no mention
of putting the original machine to rights - we will know things are improving
on the quality front. The following pointers should help you select a suitable
model:
Size:
When you see a lathe branded as, for example, 4" x 24" what does this mean?
The "English" method of sizing a lathe is to quote the centre
height - or "throw" - the distance from the centre of the chuck
to the nearest point on the bed. In this case the centre height is 4" and the distance between
centres (the maximum length of material the lathe can accommodate) 24".
With a “bigger-and-better” attitude the Americans of course quote the
largest diameter of a workpiece that can be turned clear over the bed - termed
the "swing" - and so, in the example above, the American sizing would
be 8" x 24". Some American makers, South Bend for example,
also quoted the bed length as part of the specification; however, this is an
irrelevant figure - it neither tells you the longest piece of material that can
be turned, nor the length of the lathe. How big to go? Well, bigger is not
necessarily better - and moving larger machines can be an expensive
proposition. For most home machinists and small repair workshops something
between a 3” x 15” and 6” x 30” machine
will be ideal. However, whilst the former would be light enough to lift off the
bench yourself, the latter would need an engine crane and a trailer to get
home.
Lathe beds:
Arguments have raged long and hard over the best profile for a lathe bed and
the claimed merits of "English" flat and "American" V ways.
On smaller lathes there can be no doubt that it simply does not matter which
one you have. Claims favouring one over the other are just that, claims. In
practice you will be able to discern absolutely no difference in performance
between them. Round-bed lathes of various sizes, and with single or twin bars,
have always been available with some designed down to a price (the round bed
being simple and cheap to produce, often from a length of standard bar stock)
but others of very high, almost toolroom quality.
Headstock bearings:
Arguments are often advanced in favour of a roller-bearing headstock over the
plain-bearing type. Whilst it is true that the lighter lathes made before 1945
often had very marginal bearing capacity (the rest of the lathe was usually
pretty marginal too), machines constructed since then have, almost without
exception, been provided with a headstock and spindle assembly well able to
handle all the loads and speeds it is likely to encounter. The headstock on the
popular 3.5” x 19” Myford Super 7 is a good example: the front bearing is a
tapered bronze bush, whilst the left-hand end of the spindle is carried in a
pair of ball races held in an adjustable sleeve. The tapered bush carries all
the cutting loads and keeps the spindle in accurate alignment - the ball races
merely support the spindle, allowing it to turn, whilst their housing provides
a way of adjusting the front bearing clearance.
Some German VDF lathes were made in two forms; one was the
"commercial" version, which used a roller-bearing headstock, the
other was the "Super-precision" variant - and that had a
plain-bearing headstock. VDF (a consortium of makers) were held in high regard
for the quality of their machine tools - and if they fitted plain
spindle bearings to their best machines, then you can be sure they had the
utmost confidence in them to do a superior job.
There is, however, one very definite advantage in using ball or taper roller
bearings in a headstock - the ease of replacing them. Whilst a well-used
plain-bearing set-up may suffer wear to both the bearings and spindle (and
require very expensive rectification) with ball and roller bearings it is just
a case of modest expenditure and careful mechanical work to return a headstock
to as-new condition.
Backgear and screwcutting: (Back
Gear Screw Cutting = BGSC)
As its name implies, "backgeared" is a set of gears mounted at the
back of the headstock (although in practice they are often located in other
positions) that allows the chuck to rotate slowly with greatly-increased
turning power – the usual reduction ratio used being around 6 : 1. At first, the ability to run a workpiece
slowly might seem unnecessary but a large-diameter casting, fastened to the
faceplate and run at 200 rpm (about the slowest speed normally available on a
lathe without backgear), would have a linear speed at its outer edge beyond the
turning capacity of a small lathe. By engaging backgear, and so reducing the
spindle speed but greatly increasing the torque, even the largest
faceplate-mounted jobs – brake-drums and discs for example - can be turned
successfully. As a rule a spindle-speed range that starts from 20 to 70
rpm, and extending to around 800 rpm, will prove to be satisfactory for the
majority of tasks undertaken by mechanics, experimental engineers and model
makers. If the range goes to 1200 rpm or so (or even 2000 r.p.m), then so much
the better, but speeds beyond this are, in reality, rarely needed – except for
polishing.
Screwcutting:
An operation that also
requires slow speeds, typically between 25 and 70 rpm - especially if the
operator is a beginner, or the job tricky. A higher bottom speed means that
screwcutting (especially internally, into blind holes) will be very difficult,
if not impossible. These lathes are advertised as
"screwcutting", but what that really means is just a power feed along
the bed. Even if you go to the trouble of making up a pulley system to reduce
the spindle speeds, you will find the torque required when turning large
diameters causes the belts to slip. The only solution is a gear-driven
low speed: a proper small lathe, with a backgear fitted, not only
becomes capable of cutting threads - but can also tackle heavy-duty drilling,
big-hole boring and large-diameter facing. In other words, it is possible to
use it to the very limits of its capacity and strength. Of course, there are
exceptions to the rule and some specially fitted lathes – the beautiful
American Hardinge HLV for example - where, because of adjustable stops and
quick-withdrawal mechanisms, screwcutting is possible in safely at 1000 r.p.m.
On cheaper lathes screwcutting is done with “changewheels” – so called because
each change of pitch requires the gear train to be reset. However, on more
expensive lathes, a screwcutting gearbox can be employed where changes of pitch
or feed rate merely require one or more levers to be repositioned. A powered
traverse along the bed is known as a “sliding feed” and may, on some lathes, be
accompanied by a mechanism that gives powered movement of the tool across the
bed – so-called “power cross-feed” or “surfacing”. Whilst a gearbox-equipped
lathe might seem the obvious thing to have, it does generally (but not
absolutely) limit the operator to those pitches contained within the box.
However, whilst a changewheel lathe can be made to generate almost any pitch
within (very) wide limits, on balance the ability to switch quickly from rapid
to fine-finishing rates of feed means that a gearbox-equipped machine will
always be favourite.
Slide rests and toolposts:
Most lathes likely to be encountered will have a “compound slide rest” – that
is, a slide that moves across the bed and a separate “top” or “tool” slide
bolted to it that can be angled round. Some older lathes combined both
functions into one unit, but these types are difficult to use and, because of
the way they are constructed and held (by one bolt), introduce unwanted
flexibility. If you can find a lathe with a T-slotted cross slide so much the
better. All Myford lathes have them, as do many Boxfords – and if the latter
are without they can be bought from a third-party supplier. The T-slotted slide
is largely a peculiarity of the “English” lathe and can be employed not only as
a boring table but also to mount such useful things as a milling slide and a
rear toolpost. As a matter of economy most lathes are supplied with either a
single-tool holder or a 4-way toolpost. Both can be surprisingly versatile with
the cheap, single holder often being adaptable to hold a variety of oddly
shaped tools for special jobs. However, for the majority of ordinary turning
work a quick-set toolholder will be an invaluable addition. These comprise a
central block on which fit height-adjustable toolholders, the precise settings
of which can be locked. The idea is to have a selection of holders, each with
its own tool, that can be swiftly interchanged as required. The units come in a
variety of types from impossibly expensive Swiss models to reasonable-priced UK
and European examples and cheap but efficient imports from the Far East. Email for details of units we can supply.
Tumble reverse:
This is a simple but ingenious gear mechanism, usually built into the
changewheel gear train that, when moved into mesh (usually by the raising or
lowering of a lever, or rotation of a knob), has the effect of reversing the
direction of travel of the carriage and hence the cutting tool as well. In its
“neutral” position it also allows the headstock spindle to rotate freely and
quietly without having to drive the changewheels and leadscrew. Ideal when
using the lathe in the spare bedroom next to the nursery.
Gap bed:
This is a valuable feature that, combined with backgear, enables a small lathe
to do work well beyond its nominal capacity. Sometimes the gap is a simple step
down in the bed below the chuck; sometimes a section of bed is removable. In
either case, although the machine is more expensive to produce, it does provide
the user with a most useful facility. If the lathe is 4.5" or more in
centre height (a 9" swing) then, for amateur use at least, the provision
of a gap bed becomes less important.
Centres:
Today all lathes have a “morse” taper in headstock and tailstock. The size
of this taper is important and, for other than tiny work, at least a No. 2 is
required – and, as the tailstock is often used to hold a drill chuck - even
better if it can be a No.3. Most Viceroy
and the smaller Colchester and Harrison lathes are so equipped and consequently
very handy for heavy-duty drilling jobs. If the taper is a No. 1 Morse it will
be a source of constant frustration.
Drive systems:
Early small engineering lathes of the late 19th and early 20th
century were driven by either a round leather "rope" (running in
what look to modern eyes like small V-belt grooves) or, more efficiently, flat
belts. By 1914, the flat belt had become the industry standard (though round
belts continued to be used on watchmakers' lathes) and, even though V belts
became widely available during the 1930s, many makers persisted with the flat
type until the end of the Second World War. Endless flat belts are renowned for
smooth, vibration-free running, especially around small-diameter pulleys, yet
for efficient power transmission the pulleys do need to be set some distance
apart. Flat belts with a joiner - often called alligator clips - suffer from a
clacking noise as they run and, at high speed, can induce vibrations marks into
the turned surface. After the War an increasing demand for compact,
bench-mounted machines with the motor and countershaft mounted directly behind
the headstock forced manufactures to adopt V belts; their superior grip on
short centres was thought, on balance, to outweigh the disadvantages of
vibration round small pulleys at (infrequently-used) higher speeds.
Although V belts are now considered essential for small lathes there are still
modern toolroom lathes, grinders and high-speed drilling machines that continue
to use the flat type. Even some large, geared-head lathes of recent years
employ them to transmit power from motor to headstock in an effort to cut
vibration and get away from the annoying difficulty of having to find several V
belts all exactly the same length. If you have ever tried to replace the
multiple V belts on a large machine, and been exasperated by the resulting gear
chatter and vibration as two or three unequal-length belts fought each other
for supremacy, you will see why. When the author replaced his Colchester
Student lathe with a more modern example, he was delighted to discover that the
makers had given up the "unequal struggle" as well - and reverted to
using a single, wide, flat belt made by Firestone.
If the older, smaller lathe you are considering has a flat belt, don’t worry;
fitted with a new, correctly aligned endless flat belt, it will be every bit as
good as a V-belt machine and quieter, smoother and safer into the bargain. By
the way, the pulleys over which flat belts run are not (as you may have
noticed) flat. They have a pronounced dome towards the middle, the function of
which is to keep the belt running centrally. If you make up your own pulleys,
make sure they are domed - otherwise you will be "doomed" to failure.
Only watchmakers, spinning and woodturning lathes are generally driven directly
from the electric motor. Most others – to obtain a suitable speed range for
metal cutting - use either electronic variable-speed drive or a traditional
countershaft where a small pulley on the motor (running at around 1400 r.p.m.)
drives a large pulley on a separate shaft to turn it at around 500 r.p.m.
Mounted on this shaft is a replica of the pulley on the lathe spindle, but
arranged so that on the middle speed the lathe runs at countershaft speed and
on the other two at double and half that rate. This results in a speed range of
1000, 500 and 250 r.p.m. in direct drive and (in the 6 : 1 reduction backgear)
166, 83 and 42 r.p.m. - a range commonly found and an almost ideal solution.
Plain lathes:
There is one type of lathe that you may come across, the plain-turning
or training lathe, where caution is required. We need to distinguish
here between small watch, clock and instrument-maker’s lathes and bigger
machines. The tiny, precision lathes designed to handle small and very accurate
work by skilled professionals are, almost exclusively, plain turning; what we
are discussing here are larger machines, between 3 and 6" in centre
height. Several types have been manufactured and all are likely to be
encountered. An American expression, "Bench Lathe" (now
defunct except in its plainly descriptive form) gives a useful indication of
one variety - beautifully made, precision plain-turning lathes of between 3 and
5 inches in centre height. These were offered by once-famous US makers such as
Stark, Ames, Hjorth, Potter, Pratt & Whitney, Rivett, Cataract, Wade,
Waltham, etc. as well as by European manufacturers including Holbrook in
England, Schaublin, Habegger and Mikron in Switzerland and G.Boley, Boley &
Leinen and Lorch in Germany. Surprising numbers of these machines are about –
even the American ones – and all lack a gap in the bed, backgear, slow speeds
and screwcutting. However, they can make a useful standby machine and, of
course, are ideal for the manufacture of small parts to very fine limits. Another type, and much more likely to be
found, is the “training lathe”; these were based on an established screwcutting
design, but stripped of backgear and power feeds, fitted with a low-powered
motor and designed to teach basic skills on a cheaper, less-easily damaged
machine. In the UK the most prolific makers of this type were Boxford with
their T and TUD models, Viceroy (with a variety of types) and the Raglan
“Loughborough”. On a plain lathe all movements of the tools are hand-operated
and, although this might not seem to be a serious disadvantage for the casual
user, it is. Remember, every knob, lever and other control on a lathe saves you
from having to replicate its action by hand. Although auto-electricians, who
need to do simple, short, repeat jobs might find a plain lathe satisfactory,
almost nobody else will. The one exception to this rule might be to employ a
plain lathe as a second machine, either appreciably larger or smaller than the
main one.
Combined lathes and milling/drilling machines:
There have been, in the past, many ingenious attempts to manufacture a
"universal" or "combination" machine tool based around an
ordinary centre lathe. Some were even special machines that broke away from the
conventional concepts and attempted a truly
radial solution based on what was, in essence, a slotted surface plate to
which could be attached numerous (expensive) accessories. These allowed an
astounding variety of operations to be carried out including turning, vertical
and horizontal milling, conventional and radial drilling, shaping, precision
grinding, tapping, indexing, dividing, gear cutting, sawing, engraving and
horizontal and jig boring, etc. Unfortunately, despite some very ingenious and
clever engineering they all, without exception, failed to capture the
imagination of sufficient numbers of customers to make them viable - and were
quietly abandoned. Some specialist examples, for shipboard and military use for
example, did find a niche market for a while; however, the serious compromises
inherent in their design - and their subsequently inferior performance -
ensured they remained little known.
Today, variations on machines of this type are still produced - but offered
exclusively as cheap imports for amateur use. However, one particular version -
it mounts a milling head on top of a lathe headstock - is little more than a
joke. On most of this type it is instructive to move the milling head to its
closest proximity to the "table", and then see just what an
impractical proposition the whole idea is. In addition, you need to consider
the complete unsuitability of a lathe bed to act as the support for a milling
table, as well as the enormous length of the chatter-inducing overhang between
cutting tool and supporting column. Some of the better-quality European
machines, notably Emco with their Emcomat and Maximat 7, 8.4, 10 and 11, had
independently powered milling/drilling heads mounted on the back of the lathe
bed - and were a successful solution. If you have a very limited amount of room
a combined machine may be all you can accommodate - but really, if you want a
milling machine, buy a separate unit.
Feel, fit and finish:
Any used lathe, (and new ones, of course) should, when properly adjusted, have
a certain "silky feel" to the controls. Treat with grave suspicion
any new machine that has backlash in the feed screws, play between carriage and
bed, or in the cross and top slides - and whose headstock spindle does not
rotate smoothly. Even fragile plastic knobs on the end of controls levers can
be frustrating; these should be substantially made and able to be wound on
until dead tight - without falling apart. In addition, although a poor-quality
cosmetic finish might not seem to matter, if the makers of a machine tool,
which, by its very nature is supposed to be a superior product, are bold enough
to put on the market an ill-finished job, imagine what they are prepared to
neglect about the bits you can't see. A good tip with any lathe is to wind off
the cross slide and tailstock and look at the quality of the machining. Some
Far-eastern lathes have been found with slides so badly finished - and with
such irregular contact patches - that it was impossible for them to move
smoothly or be locked down securely.
Electricity:
A small lathe will be usually be fitted with an electric motor of between 0.33
and 3 h.p. running from either a 1-phase or 3-phase supply. The former can be
connected to a domestic electricity supply – the latter cannot. However, a
3-phase motor need not put you off, today they can be powered from a
“converter” or “inverter” Whilst the former is inexpensive, the inverter type
now costs hardly any more and is far superior. It takes 1-phase current from
the home supply and changes it to a 3-phase - whilst also (and very usefully)
allowing the motor speed to be varied. Most inverters also have an
"over-speed" function, DC injection braking and other clever
electronic features. Because most inverters put out the same voltage as they
take in e.g. 110v or 240v, it's usual to connect the inverter direct to the
motor, so getting round problems with the rest of the machine’s electrical
system that might contain coils or transformers that need to be supplied with
440, 220 or 110 volts. However, once the inverter is set up and the motor
running there is no harm in trying the original "power-in" connection
on the side of the lathe to see if the original switchgear can be used
successfully. If you do, and it can’t, don’t be surprised. Most 3-phase motors
are wired in what is called a "STAR" configuration to run at 440
volts, or 380, etc. depending on the country of use. Happily, most can be
easily be switched over to a DELTA configuration for use with lower voltages
of, typically, 110, 240 or 250 volts, etc. Removing the terminal plate on the
motor often exposes a little chart showing you how to rearrange the links and
what the various voltages are. If the
links are not obvious, or you have any at all doubts about how to proceed, any
good motor-repair shop will be able to arrange the wiring for you. A good
quality inverter by Siemens - and it’s worth spending a little extra for a
reliable, proven unit - will cost between £145 and £300 (at 2008 prices).
A word of warning: do
not be tempted to use too powerful a motor. Any dig-in, or other accident, will
be made much worse with potentially serious consequences. Lathes up to 3.5-inch
centre height will run happily on 0.33 to 0.5 h.p. From 3.5 to 5-inch 0.75 to 1
h.p. is usually sufficient with only industrial 6 to 7-inch lathes requiring
more.
Heath and
safety:
Any work with a machine tool involves an element of risk. You are soft; the
machine is hard, fast and sharp and does not take prisoners – read
some essential hints and tips about safe use.
It’s not exhaustive, but might help avoid trouble. Never approach a machine
tool with a casual attitude. At the most basic level, before starting work wear
tight-fitting clothing; remove anything loose; fasten away long hair and ensure
buttons are fastened and zips closed; wear eye protection and, if the thing you
are turning is giving out unknown fumes, a mask.
In summary:
Essential Features in a
Small Lathe
Screwcutting
Backgear
Tumble Reverse
Provision to fit T slotted cross slide
2 Morse taper in tailstock
Set-over tailstock for taper turning
Gearing to handle on apron traverse
Desirable Features in a
Small Lathe
Quick-set or 4-way tool holder
Gap bed (up to 3.5"/90mm centre height)
At least 0.5"/13mm hole through spindle
Dial-thread indicator for screwcutting
Spindle lock to aid removal of chucks
Automatic disengage to saddle drive
Provision to mount collets
Graduated tailstock barrel
Non-Essential
but Useful Features in a Small Lathe
Screwcutting gearbox
Power cross feed
Clutch to headstock spindle drive
1" (26mm) or larger hole through spindle
Coolant equipment
Graduated handle to leadscrew end
Availability of lever-action tailstock
Electronic or mechanical variable-speed drive
Makes and Models:
For model,
experimental, home-workshop, automotive or motorcycle work the choice is
simple: look for one of the following easily-found “modern” models. There are
many others of course, but these are the most common. The further down the list
you go the stronger, better equipped and more versatile they become (and
heavier and larger too, of course). If your interest is watch, clock or
instrument making look at this
section.
Myford ML10, ML7 or
Super 7 – spares and service backup off-the-shelf
Cromwell Precision
Emco Maximat 7 or 8.4 & 8.6
Boxford 4.5 or 5-inch
South Bend 9-inch (USA)
Emco Compact 10,
Maximat V10 or V10P
Delta Rockwell 10-inch (USA)
Atlas and Craftsman
10 and 12-inch (USA)
Boxford 280
Boxford 330
South Bend Heavy 10 (USA)
Viceroy TDS, 280 or
Synchro - or any version based on these types
Raglan “Little John”
or "5-inch"
Sheldon 10 to
13-inch (USA)
Harrison L5A or
Harrison "11-inch" or Harrison 140 (though the L5 has a rather small
spindle bore)
Kerry - either the
older AG or more modern 1124 series
Delta Rockwell 11-inch (USA)
Emco Maximat 11
Willson “Slant Bed”
Churchill Cub (especially the Mk.3)
Clausing Type 4900,
5400 & 6300 (USA)
Logan lathes (most
models USA)
Colchester Bantam – all models from early to late in geared-head forms
Harrison M250
Colchester Chipmaster – a strong variable-speed lathe based on the Bantam
Delta Rockwell 14-inch
Harrison M300 (a
more modern machine than the L5, L5A and 140)
Colchester Master
Mk. 1 or 2 (in the USA the Clausing 13-inch equivalent)
Colchester Student
Mk. 1 or 2
Colchester Student
or Master 1800 or 2500
Colchester Triumph
(in the USA the Clausing 15 to 17-ich equivalent)
For further details
of all these machine – and others – go to: ARCHIVE
Handbooks and Manuals:
You’ve bought your lathe and don’t know how to use it? Arm yourself with a
copy of “The Amateur’s Lathe” and “Lathework a Complete Course”,
several lengths of aluminium bar and do some practice. Also, when all else
fails – read the machine’s instruction
book. Even the sales
literature can be informative, and a parts books can be a great help in
dismantling and assembling unfamiliar mechanisms. If you don’t have one for
your machine, lathes.co.uk may be able to help.
For data about the
construction and use look at: http://www.lathes.co.uk/latheparts.
Safety is an
important consideration (machine tools do not take prisoners): read: http://www.lathes.co.uk/page13.html
Further reading also
includes magazines such as the UK-published “Model Engineer” and “Model Engineers’
Workshop” – the latter being an excellent source of common-sense articles that
detail a host of useful and widely applicable engineering process.
